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  The solution is to acknowledge a strong and effective group leader. Most groups will not be proactive enough to actually elect a leader; one typically emerges naturally. A strong, competent, and confident leader will help quell the fears and doubts the group may be feeling, and will focus each individual’s efforts on the tasks necessary for survival.

  Chapter Four

  SIGNALING

  The irony of survival is that for all the planning and preparation you do to stay alive in the wild, all you really want is to go home. Survival instructors tend to romanticize survival by teaching the many excellent, sometimes advanced skills that will help you live as long as possible in remote areas, but the bottom line in a true survival situation is that you’re scared, hungry, tired, and cold. You just want out of this nightmare. Signaling can be key to getting you home, and sooner rather than later.

  Debate continues as to which aspect of survival should take first priority, but I believe that once you’ve established your immediate safety and if there is no urgency about shelter, your next step should be getting signals ready. And since you never really know when a potential rescuer may appear, you need to be ready to signal immediately and at all times. It would be nice to be saved quickly, but the reality is that it could be hours, days, or even weeks, before somebody spots your signal.

  Signaling devices fall into two categories: targeted signals that need to be seen or heard by someone passing by, and technological signals that send information about location or situation to someone a greater distance away.

  Targeted Signals

  TARGETED SIGNALS ARE SIGNALS that need to be seen or heard by a target—a person on foot or in a plane or boat, for example—to be effective. There are those that are ready to use and those that you need to make yourself.

  If you are using a visual signal that you want to be seen by passing aircraft, locate it in a clear, flat area on the highest possible terrain. Know that if you are spotted by an aircraft, it will probably not land immediately. Look for the pilot to acknowledge your signal by flying low, dropping a message, dipping the plane’s wings, or flashing lights.

  No matter what type of signal you make, know how to use it and be ready to get it going on short notice. You may have only seconds, and a missed opportunity could cost you your life.

  Ready-to-Use Signals

  Ready-to-use signals are the easiest ones to employ in the wilderness because they’re typically the product of some sort of technological innovation. At least one of these devices should be in your complete survival kit.

  Signal mirror: A signal mirror’s reflection can be seen as far away as 50 miles (80 km) on a clear, sunny day. Signal mirrors can also work on over-cast days and with moonlight, although with less range.

  True signal mirrors come with an aiming hole in the middle, but any mirror or reflective material (like a square of tinfoil) can be aimed at its target. Face the target and stretch out your arm so that your hand is just beneath the target. With your other hand, hold the mirror near your head and aim the reflected light directly onto your hand. Tilt the mirror up and down rapidly. Given the range of the signal mirror, you should flash any airplane you see, no matter how far away it may seem. The internationally recognized SOS signal is three short reflections followed by three longer ones followed again by three short ones.

  Generally, the larger the mirror the more light it will reflect. Glass mirrors reflect better than any other material, but also are the most easily broken; metal mirrors (including stainless steel), on the other hand, scratch easily and are also subject to rust, particularly in saltwater environments.

  Using a Signal Mirror with a Sighting Hole

  1. To effectively use a signal mirror with a sighting hole, hold the mirror fairly close to your face. Through the hole, you should be able to see a bright glow.

  2. Align the glow so that it covers your target; this is where the sun’s reflection will shine.

  Using a Signal Mirror Without a Sighting Hole

  1. Face the target and stretch out your arm so your hand is just beneath the target.

  2. Tilt the mirror rapidly up and down.

  3. Aim the reflected light directly onto your outstretched hand as shown.

  Chemicals: Potassium permanganate is an example of a chemical that can be used to make a temporary sign on water or a more permanent one in snow (it dyes the snow purple) to signal for rescue.

  Chemical lights: Although some companies make chemical lights for survival situations, these are not very bright and usually can’t be seen from more than a mile away. Chemical lights are most easily seen when swung in wide arcs or sweeps; all have a limited storage life that runs out quickly after exposure to air.

  Flares: Flares are an effective way to signal someone and they have saved lives all around the world. They work only for a short time, however, so don’t use them until you’re sure they’ll be seen.

  Flashlight: These don’t have the same range as signal mirrors but work in the same way and are very useful at night. Be careful not to waste battery power; there’s no point dangling your flashlight in a tree all night unless there’s a chance someone may see it.

  Laser flares: Take flashlights one step further, with a more powerful, colorful, and visible beam and you’ve got the laser flare. Another benefit of laser flares is that they’re compact and long-lasting.

  Signals You Make Yourself

  If you’re not fortunate enough to have a ready-to-use signal on hand, there are still a few signaling options available. These can be as effective as the ready-to-use variety, but require more effort and are subject to the vagaries of your environment.

  The Signal Fire: Signals fires must be built in a wide-open space. Timing is everything; they must be ready for the moment when a plane passes overhead. Stay with a signal fire once you have lit it, in case the pilot attempts to communicate with you.

  During the day, the most visible part of a signal fire is the smoke, so you will also want to have items on hand that create as much of it as possible. Rubber and plastic work well (producing black smoke), as do fresh (green) branches and boughs, which produce white smoke. Moss or punky wood also work well.

  Given the choice, go for black smoke, since it is not likely to be confused with a campfire. Either way, smoke is most effective on clear, calm days. Wind, rain, snow, and clouds disperse or shield smoke, significantly decreasing the chances it will be seen. In addition, smoke is not nearly as important at night, when the flame itself will be more easily spotted from above.

  Some survival guides say you’ll have a better chance of attracting attention if you prepare three signal fires and position them in the shape of a triangle, a commonly recognized distress symbol. I tried this during a winter survival course. On the day that the plane finally flew over, the temperature hovered near–40°F (–40°C), and I had been surviving for seven days and had little energy left.

  When I heard the plane approaching, I had to run with burning bark from my survival fire to the signal fire, which was about 60 yards (55 m) away, in the middle of a frozen lake. When I got the first point of the triangle lit, I had to run the 40 yards (37 m) to each of the other points to set them burning as well. My hands felt frozen, I nearly put out the bark I was running with, and I taxed my remaining energy reserves doing all that running.

  The pilot saw my signal fires and came down to rescue me. Once we were in the air, though, I was shocked to see that the triangle I had made—which had seemed so big and spread out on the ground—looked surprisingly small from the air. In the end, one very large fire would have served the same purpose and would have saved me a lot of energy—and firewood.

  Making a Signal Fire

  1. To make a signal fire, begin by making a tripod of three trees.

  2. If you have extra rope, weave it across the base of the tripod to make a plat form. Fill the platform with dry, quick-burning materials such as birch bark. On top, place smoke-producing materials, like damp moss, punky wood, rubbe
r, or plastic.

  3. Ignite the signal fire when you believe a plane will see it.

  * * *

  STROUD’S TIP

  Bush pilots have told me that if they see anything that looks out of the ordinary on the ground—whether it appears to be a signal fire or even just a tarp laid flat in the middle of an open space—they will stop to check it out, regardless of whether it’s an “official” distress signal such as a triangle or the letters SOS. Don’t overlook the value of a simple signal as well. A coat hung on a tree has saved more than one life.

  * * *

  The Tree Torch: A variation on the signal fire is the tree torch, which involves setting a single tree on fire. Although standing dead trees will light most easily, live trees can also be set on fire, particularly ones that bear sap. Paper birch trees are also very good tree torches; their thin bark lights easily.

  To make a tree torch, place dry wood in the lower branches and light them. The flame will flare upward and should ignite the leaves overhead. When creating a tree torch, select an isolated tree so you don’t start a forest fire!

  Although signal fires are the most common type of signal you make yourself, there are other everyday (perhaps unexpected) items you can use to signal and improve your chances of being found.

  Clothing and rag signals: You can attract attention to yourself by wearing bright-colored clothing that stands out against your surroundings (fluorescent orange works best). If there’s no risk of them getting wet or blown away, drape some of your extra clothing on nearby branches. Tie a brightly colored rag or piece of clothing to your shelter too.

  Ground signals: When making a signal on the ground, pick an open area that can be seen easily from overhead. Remember that things are a lot smaller when viewed from overhead, so size matters. Go as big as you can.

  Those orange garbage bags in your survival kit have so many uses; they make excellent ground signals since they usually provide stark contrast against earth tones. Lay them flat in a highly visible area and secure them with rocks to attract the attention of passing aircraft. If you don’t have one of these bags, try orange surveyor’s tape, aluminum foil, or anything bright or reflective. Spelling out SOS or HELP is internationally recognized but can be labor-intensive. If you don’t have the materials or energy to do so, a large V or X should do the trick.

  If you have nothing in your kit with which to make a traditional signal, you can use natural materials to attract attention to yourself. Use rocks, logs, brush, seaweed, or branches formed in words or arrows or any obvious marking. If you don’t have any of these materials on hand, you can still make a signal by clearing away or burning bushes and other ground cover, or even tramping down snow.

  Vehicle wreckage signals: In some cases, your survival situation may include a vehicle (car, snowmobile, plane, or canoe). Your vehicle is big and conspicuous and will attract attention. Stay with it if you suspect rescue may be on its way. If you can fashion your vehicle into your shelter, all the better. Now it’s serving two purposes.

  In addition, you may be able to use parts of the vehicle to attract attention. Arrange them in a way that makes them conspicuous. Your vehicle’s lights and horn are also powerful means of attracting attention.

  If you can get a tire off your car (or have a spare), add it to your signal fire. Burning rubber creates thick black smoke. (Burning a tire is not the most environmentally friendly option available, but when it comes to life or death, that is not an issue. Your goal is to live; you can dedicate yourself to environmental causes when you return to safety.)

  Oils and fuels are also good for creating smoke, especially when rags are soaked in them.

  Audio signals: Although audio signals aren’t effective in alerting aircraft, they can work well for signaling to ground-based rescuers and passersby. Even if you’re not sure that someone is looking for you, it can’t hurt to make as much noise as possible.

  One audio signal that does not work very well in the wilderness is your voice; it doesn’t carry far enough. A survival whistle, however, is excellent, and the better commercial ones can be heard more than a mile away. Gunshots are also audible from a great distance, though you will have to balance the need for ammunition for other survival uses with the chance of someone hearing your shot.

  * * *

  STROUD’S TIP

  No matter what type of noise you are making, the international signal for distress can come in handy. Whether you’re clanging pots together, blowing on a whistle, or blasting from an air siren, repeat the sound three straight times, which indicates you’re in need of help.

  * * *

  Technological Signals

  UNLIKE TARGETED SIGNALS, WHICH NEED TO BE SEEN OR HEARD by someone in your direct vicinity to be effective, technological signals carry your message over greater distances. If technology shines anywhere during a survival situation, it’s in signaling. Cell phones, satellite phones, two-way radios, and PLBs have saved the lives of countless stranded adventurers.

  EPIRBs (Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacons), ELTs (Emergency Locator Transmitters), and PLBs (Personal Locator Beacons): Among a class of devices known as tracking transmitters, these beacons all function by sending a distress signal that allows search-and-rescue personnel to locate your position almost immediately. EPIRBs commonly signal maritime distress; ELTs signal aircraft distress; and PLBs are for personal use.

  Although the basic idea behind all these devices is to get the person rescued within 24 hours of activation, this is not always the case, particularly in developing nations. I once made a survival film off the coast of Belize. My sailboat captain explained the reality that the authorities there probably would not act if I set off a locator beacon, and that they might not even know what it was. He dared me to set mine off and see what happened. I did and…nothing.

  SPOT satellite messenger: First implemented by SPOT Inc., the satellite messenger is one of the greatest technological innovations to hit the world of outdoor adventuring—and surviving—in recent years.

  The SPOT device is a hand-held unit that serves as a distress beacon like a PLB but does much more, primarily through one-way text messaging and e-mail. SPOT will send a pre-programmed distress message (with your exact GPS location) requesting help from up to 10 programmed contacts, each of whom will read your message on their computer or phone. It will also inform your contacts of your location (using Google Maps) and let them know you are okay. The device will even allow your friends and family to track your progress using Google Maps. But for a real emergency, you press the “911” button, which informs local search-and-rescue teams of your need for help.

  Cell phones and satellite phones: Your cell phone will transmit information about your location, even if there is no service in your area—so keep it on as long as possible. Text messaging has greater range than your cell phone may indicate, since it works on a different signal.

  In years gone by, satellite phones were bulky, weighed a ton, and had questionable coverage. With technological innovation, however, they have become cheaper and more compact. On the downside, satellite phones have a limited battery life.

  * * *

  STROUD’S TIP

  By far the best devices you can have with you are the SPOT satellite messenger and a satellite phone. With these, when you send a message, you can be sure that somebody is receiving it. With any other form of communication, you hope people get the message.

  * * *

  On the Move

  IF YOU DECIDE TO LEAVE YOUR EMERGENCY LOCATION, it’s important that you give potential rescuers as much information as possible about your journey. If you have paper and pencil available, leave a detailed note in a safe, dry, and conspicuously marked location. Let them know when you left, where you are going, how you are traveling (by boat or on foot), your physical state, how many of you there are, and the extent of your supplies. You should also mark your direction of travel with an arrow. Rocks and branches can be laid on the ground to point rescuer
s in the same direction, or you can use your knife to cut directional signs into trees.

  When Rescue Arrives

  WHAT DO YOU DO IF YOUR SIGNAL ACTUALLY WORKS? Assuming you are now in the clear can be a big mistake.

  If you are being rescued by an aircraft such us a light plane or helicopter, remove all loose materials from the landing area to prevent them from being sucked into propellers and rotors. Sometimes a helicopter may not be able to land where you’re stranded, so they may need the aid of a device to lift you from the ground. In all cases, follow the instructions of your rescuers to the letter.

  Group Versus Solo Survival

  ONE OF THE BENEFITS OF BEING IN A GROUP is that you have more eyes and ears trained on the possibility of rescue, and more people available to attract attention when the time comes. You can also build more and bigger signals, and, if necessary, spread them out over a greater area.

  As in all aspects of survival, adaptability and ingenuity are paramount when it comes to making a rescue signal. Some victims have cut or burned down a hydro pole. When hydro workers eventually came out to fix it, the lost were found.